Weekly post Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Weekly post - Assignment Example These global cycles involve the circulation of elements and nutrients that sustain both the biological and physical aspects of the environment. For example, all known organisms on this planet depend on water to sustain them.   They are constantly cycling water, consuming it on a regular basis either by itself or with nutrients, while expelling water (with waste products) at the same time.   Besides being critical for the biosphere, water is also an extremely important part of the physical environment. When water vapor condenses to form clouds, more of the Suns rays are reflected back into the atmosphere, usually cooling the climate. Conversely, water vapor is also an important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, trapping heat in the infrared part of the spectrum in the lower atmosphere. Water is also involved in other biogeochemical cycles.   The hydrologic cycle intersects with almost every other element cycles, as well as some of the geological cycles such as the sedimentary cy cle.  Ã‚   In this and other activities, we are going to study how carbon cycles through our ecosystem and how mankind affects this cycle.   It is important that we understand how carbon cycles through the ecosystem for two reasons. The first of these reasons is that all organic material contains carbon.   From the smallest vitamin molecule all the way up to the long polymer chains of proteins and DNA, carbon provides the basis of all organic compounds.   The second reason why we need to understand the carbon cycle is because of its effect on the physical environment.   Carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide, is released as a waste product of oxidation.   This means that it is released during the combustion of fossil fuels, as well as the respiration of organisms.   As we will see later, this can have a tremendous effect on our climate, since carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. Carbon has two phases in the carbon cycle: gaseous and solid.   Its gaseous phase is mostly in the

Cost of Opportunity Essay Example for Free

Cost of Opportunity Essay Assuming the best choice is made, it is the cost incurred by not enjoying the benefit that would be had by taking the second best choice available. [1] The New Oxford American Dictionary defines it as the loss of potential gain from other alternatives when one alternative is chosen. Opportunity cost is a key concept in economics, and has been described as expressing the basic relationship between scarcity and choice. [2] The notion of opportunity cost plays a crucial part in ensuring that scarce resources are used efficiently. [3] Thus, opportunity costs are not restricted to monetary or financial costs: the real cost of output forgone, lost time, pleasure or any other benefit that provides utility should also be considered opportunity costs. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Opportunity costs in consumption 3 Opportunity costs in production 3. 1 Explicit costs Implicit costs 4 Non-monetary opportunity costs 5 Evaluation 6 See also 7 References 8 External links History [edit] The term was coined in 1914 by Austrian economist Friedrich von Wieser in his book Theorie der gesellschaftlichen Wirtschaft. [4] It was first described in 1848 by French classical economist Frederic Bastiat in his essay What Is Seen and What Is Not Seen. Opportunity costs in consumption [edit] Opportunity cost may be expressed in terms of anything which is of value. For example, an individual might decide to use a period of vacation time for  travel rather than to do household repairs. The opportunity cost of the trip could be said to be the forgone home renovation. [citation needed] Opportunity costs in production [edit] Opportunity costs may be assessed in the decision-making process of production. If the workers on a farm can produce either one million pounds of wheat or two million pounds of barley, then the opportunity cost of producing one pound of wheat is th e two pounds of barley forgone (assuming the production possibilities frontier is linear). Firms would make rational decisions by weighing the sacrifices involved. Explicit costs [edit] Explicit costs are opportunity costs that involve direct monetary payment by producers. The opportunity cost of the factors of production not already owned by a producer is the price that the producer has to pay for them. For instance, a firm spends $100 on electrical power consumed, their opportunity cost is $100. The firm has sacrificed $100, which could have been spent on other factors of production. Implicit costs [edit] Implicit costs are the opportunity costs in factors of production that a producer already owns. They are equivalent to what the factors could earn for the firm in alternative uses, either operated within the firm or rent out to other firms. For example, a firm pays $300 a month all year for rent on a warehouse that only holds product for six months each year. The firm could rent the warehouse out for the unused six months, at any price (assuming a year-long lease requirement), and that would be the cost that could be spent on other factors of production. Non-monetary opportunity costs [edit] Opportunity costs are not always monetary units or being able to produce one good over another. The opportunity cost can also be unknown, or spawn a series of infinite sub opportunity costs. For instance, an individual could choose not to ask a girl out on a date, in an attempt to make her more interested (playing hard to get), but the opportunity cost could be that they get ignored which could result in other opportunities being lost. Evaluation [edit] Note that opportunity cost is not the sum of the available alternatives when those alternatives are, in turn, mutually exclusive to each other – it is the value of the next best use. The opportunity cost of a citys decision to build the hospital on its vacant land is the loss of the land for a sporting center, or the inability to use the land for a parking lot, or the money which could have been made from selling the land. Use for any one of those purposes would preclude the possibility to implement any of the other. See also [edit] Economics portal Budget constraint Economic value added Opportunity cost of capital Parable of the broken window Production-possibility frontier There Aint No Such Thing As A Free Lunch Time management Trade-off

Bio Fertilizer Industry In India

Bio Fertilizer Industry In India Bio-fertilizers are contain live such beneficial microorganisms which on application to seed, root or soil mobilize the availability of nutrients by their biological activity in particular, and help build up the micro-flora and in turn the soil health in general. An increasing number of farmers and agriculturists are turning to the use of bio-fertilizers as these are gentler on the soil as against chemical fertilizers. It is easier to fully appreciate the importance of bio-fertilizers when we know how harmful the chemical fertilizers for the soil and the crops are. Chemical fertilizers are meant to boost the growth of plants and increase the fertility of the soil; however they cause significant damage to the environment and also human health by increasing the day by day concentration of toxic chemical in food. These chemical based fertilizers also make use of nitrogenous fertilizers or chemicals, are expensive and not as conveniently available. Unlike other environmentally harmful chemical fertilizers, bio-fertilizers work on naturally building up the resistance and enhance the nutritional value of the soil and the host plant by adding primary nutrients. Application of high input technologies has resulted in significant increase in agricultural productivity. There is, however, a growing concern about the adverse effects of indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers on soil productivity and environmental quality. For those looking at organic farming, bio-fertilizers make the perfect choice. A large number of people are realizing the value and benefit of living an eco-friendly life, and therefore the demand for organic products is ever increasing. Using bio-fertilizers is a great way to produce organic products and promote good health. The current research study is based on using the secondary data for the analysis or market of bio-fertilizer in India. Market analysis includes the annual requirement and production of different bio-fertilizers state wise in India and to find the root cause behind tremendous gap between requirement and production. This study will analyse the major bio-fertilizer producing states and identify major government and non government manufacturers. In this report we also analysis the market revenue of bio-agri (bio-fertilizer) and constant increasing demand and growth rate of this industry in India. And also analysis the strategies used by the industry to increase the market of bio-fertilizer. Also, this study will contribute in building a trend analysis for the production of bio-fertilizers in India over the last 10 years. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY In the current scenario one of the major concerns faced by the agriculture industry is the contamination and pollution of soil. The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has caused tremendous harm to the environment. There seems to be a growing concern about the adverse effects of indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers on soil productivity and environmental quality. An answer to this is the bio-fertilizer, an environmentally friendly fertilizer now used in most countries. Bio-fertilizers contain micro-organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of soil. These micro-organisms supply in addition to nitrogen, considerable amount of organic matter enriching quality of soil. Inoculants of these micro-organisms have proved their technical feasibility, economic viability and social acceptability. They are therefore called as `bio-fertilizer. Hence the term `bio-fertilizer may be defined as those fertilizer which containing living or latent cells of efficient strains of the nitrogen fixing, phosphorous solubilising or cellulolytice micro-organism. For those looking at organic farming, bio-fertilizers make. The perfect choice a large number of people are realizing the value and benefit of living an eco-friendly life, and therefore the demand for organic products is ever increasing. Using bio-fertilizers is a great way to produce organic products and promote good health. This research study based on analysing the annual requirement and production of different bio-fertilizers state wise in India identified Tamil Nadu as the major biofertilizer producing state of India. Other regions of production of biofertilizers are Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Chennai karnataka. The root cause behind tremendous gap between requirement and production is existence of very few Biofertilizer producing organizations and less awareness of benefits of using biofertilizers over chemical fertilizers. This research study also identified the major government and non government organizations producing biofertilizers. Data enlisted in this report contributes in building a trend analysis for the production of biofertilizers in India over the last 10 years. CHAPTER 01 INTRODUCTION SALES MARKETING OF BIOFERTLIZERS IN INDIA INTRODUCTION One of the major concerns in todays world is the pollution and contamination of soil. The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has caused tremendous harm to the environment. An answer to this is the biofertilizer, an environmentally friendly fertilizer now used in most countries. Biofertilizers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of soil. The main sources of biofertilizers are bacteria, fungi, and Cynobacteria (blue-green algae). The most striking relationship that these have with plants is symbiosis, in which the partners derive benefits from each other.Plants have a number of relationships with fungi, bacteria, and algae, the most common of which are with Mycorrhiza, Rhizobium, and Cyanophyceae. These are known to deliver a number of benefits including plant nutrition, disease resistance, and tolerance to adverse soil and climatic conditions. These techniques have proved to be successful biofertilizers that form a health relationship with the roots. Biofertilizers will help to solve such problems as increased salinity of the soil and chemical run-offs from the agricultural fields. Thus, biofertilizers are important if we are to ensure a healthy future for the generations to come. These micro-organisms supply in addition to nitrogen, considerable amount of organic matter enriching structure of soil. Inoculants of these micro-organisms have proved their technical feasibility, economic viability and social acceptability. They are therefore called as `biofertilizer. Hence the term `biofertilizer or microbial inoculants may be defined as preparations containing living or latent cells of efficient strains of nitrogen fixing, phosphorous solubilising or cellulolytice micro-organism. There is, however, a growing concern about the adverse effects of indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers on soil productivity and environmental quality. For those looking at organic farming, biofertilizers make the perfect choice. A large number of people are realizing the value and benefit of living an eco-friendly life, and therefore the demand for organic products is ever increasing. Using biofertilizers is a great way to produce organic products and promote good health. Therefore, the current research study is based on analysing the annual requirement and production of different bio-fertilizers state wise in India to find the root cause behind tremendous gap between requirement and production. This study will analyse state wise production of various biofertilizers and identify major government and non government manufacturers meeting the requirements. Results from this research study would draw inference on major government and non government manufacturers as well as find out the major state in India producing biofertilizers. Also, this study will contribute in building a trend analysis for the production of biofertilizers in India over the last 10 years. 1.1 OBJECTIVES: To analyse the annual production and sale of Biofertilizers in India Estimate state wise production and consumption of Biofertilizers Analyse Marketing conditions in the Biofertilizers market of India To predict the future production and consumption by Trend analysis 1.2 RESEARCH PLAN : The study will begin with collecting raw data of all the material available on the internet, published articles, and various journals and thereafter tabulate the data collected to perform an ordered analysis of major biofertilizer producing states of India, check the prevalent trend in the production and sales during the last ten years. Time consideration to collect extensive amount of data would be three months and the research results shall be demonstrated statistically in the form of graphs and charts so as to ease the understanding of the gap between production and availability of biofertilizers in the Indian market. 1.3 METHODOLOGY : This research study is primarily based on extensive secondary research data available in the various published research reports and annual reports of various government and non-government organizations. The study begins with collecting raw data out of all the material available on the internet, published articles, and various journals and thereafter tabulating the data to construct graphs and charts to bring about various analysis of state wise production and sales of the major biofertilizers. 1.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH Since the data collected is secondary data, no primary research results could be utilized deciphering that certain amount of data could be outdated or obsolete. No research study or survey has been conducted till date to rate the top 10 or top 5 Biofertilizer producing companies on India although top 20 companies producing chemical fertilizers can be enlisted. No research study has been conducted to analyze the contribution of sales of biofertilizers to the economy of India. There exist various research gaps to statistically estimate the trend of biofertilizer production since the first year of its commercial production in India. CHAPTER 02 LITERATURE REVIEW 2. ROLE OF BIOFERTILIZERS Biofertilizers have definite advantage over chemical fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers supply not only nitrogen whereas biofertilizers provide in addition to nitrogen certain growth promoting substances like hormones, vitamins, amino acids, etc., crops have to be provided with chemical fertilizers repeatedly to replenish the loss of nitrogen utilized for crop growth. On the other hand biofertilizers supply the nitrogen continuously throughout the entire period of crop growth in the field under favorable conditions. Continuous use of chemical fertilizers adversely affects the soil structure whereas biofertilizers when applied to soil improve the soil structure. The deleterious effects of chemical fertilizers are that they are toxic at higher doses. Biofertilizers, however, have no toxic effects.It may be borne in mind that biofertilizers are no substitute for chemical fertilizers. At present, the use of chemical fertilizers is far below the recommended level. Therefore, the aim and ob ject of spread of biofertilizers technology as a Industry has to build up efficiency in use of chemical fertilizers supplemented by low cost inoculants to the extent possible.Main constraints in spread of biofertilizers as an Industry are production and supply of efficient cultures of microorganisms to farmers well before sowing. Secondly, Quality control aspect and lack of publicity, etc. Besides, whatever biofertilizers are prepared are not reached to farmers prior to sowing. At many places they are given free of cost, which lowers down the importance of product and farmers dont use them carefully. Sometimes, biofertilizers are supplied after expiry date and hence expected results are not obtained. A quality control aspect is the most important in biofertilizers. Now a day most of the products sold in the market are below standard. A few entrepreneurs possess ISI mark for their products. The government has no control over manufacturers of biofertilizers in any of the states of Ind ia. Hence farmers are confused about rates, quality and expiry dates of biofertilizers. Similar is the case of prices; they are varied from place to place. (Panlada Tittabutra, et. Al., 2006) Organic farming has emerged as an important priority area globally in view of the growing demand for safe and healthy food and long term sustainability and concerns on environmental pollution associated with indiscriminate use of agrochemicals. Though the use of chemical inputs in agriculture is inevitable to meet the growing demand for food in world, there are opportunities in selected crops and niche areas where organic production can be encouraged to tape the domestic export market. Bio-fertilizers are being essential component of organic farming are the preparations containing live or latent cells of efficient strains of nitrogen fixing, phosphate solubilizing or cellulolytic micro-organisms used for application to seed, soil or composting areas with the objective of increasing number of such micro-organisms and accelerate those microbial processes which augment the availability of nutrients that can be easily assimilated by plants. Biofertilizers play a very significant role in improving soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen, both, in association with plant roots and without it, solubilise insoluble soil phosphates and produces plant growth substances in the soil. They are in fact being promoted to harvest the naturally available, biological system of nutrient mobilization (Venkatashwarlu, 2008a). The role and importance of biofertilizers in sustainable crop production has been reviewed by several authors (Biswas et al. 1985; Wani and Lee, 1995; Katyal et al. 1994). But the progress in the field of BF production technology remained always below satisfaction in Asia because of various constraints. It may be noted, only 30 % of Indias total cultivable area is covered with fertilizers where irrigation facilities are available and the remaining 70 % of the arable land, which is mainly rain fed, very negligible amount of fertilizers are being used. Farmers in these areas often use organic manures as a source of nutrients that are readily available either in their own farm or in their locality. The North- Eastern (NE) region of India provides consi derable opportunity for organic farming due to least utilization of chemical inputs. It is estimated that 18 million hectare of such land is available in the NE that can be exploited for organic production. With the sizable acreage under naturally organic/default organic cultivation, India has tremendous potential to grow crops organically and emerge as a major supplier of organic products in worlds organic market (Venkatashwarlu. 2008a) The report of Task Force on Organic Farming appointed by the Government of India also observed that in vast areas of the country, where limited amount of chemicals are used and have low productivity could be exploited as potential areas to develop into organic agriculture. Arresting the decline of soil organic matter is the most potent weapon in fighting against unabated soil degradation and imperiled sustainability of agriculture in tropical regions of India, particularly those under the influence of arid, semiarid and sub-humid climate. Applicatio n of organic manures particularly bio-fertilizers is the only option to improve the soil organic carbon for sustenance of soil quality and future agricultural productivity (Ramesh,2008). 2.1 WHY TO EXPLORE BIO-FERTILIZERS Indiscriminate use of synthetic fertilizers has led to the pollution and contamination of the soil, polluted water basins, destroyed micro-organisms and friendly insects, making the crop more prone to diseases and reduced soil fertility. Demand is much higher than the availability. It is estimated that by 2020, to achieve the targeted production of 321 million tonnes of food grain, the requirement of nutrient will be 28.8 million tonnes, while their availability will be only 21.6 million tones being a deficit of about 7.2 million tones. Depleting feedstock/fossil fuels (energy crisis) and increasing cost of fertilizers. This is becoming unaffordable by small and marginal farmers. Soil fertility depletes due to widening gap between nutrient removal and supplies. There is a huge concern about such environmental hazards which increases threat to sustainable agriculture. Besides the above facts, the long term use of bio-fertilizers is economical, eco-friendly, more efficient, productive and accessible to marginal and small farmers over chemical fertilizers (Venkataraman and Shanmugasundaram, 1992) . 2.2 Balanced use of Chemical Bio-fertilizers The annual requirement and production of different bio-fertilizers has clearly demonstrated tremendous gap in this area. Thus, a strategy for judicious combination of chemical fertilizers and biofertilizers will be economically viable and ecological useful. It should be recommended that biofertilizers are not a substitute, but a supplement to chemical fertilizers for maximizing not only the yield but also agro system stability. 2.3 Characteristic features of some Bio-fertilizers Rhizobium:- Belongs to family Rhizobiaceae, symbiotic in nature, fix nitrogen 50-100 kg/ha. With legumes only. It is useful for pulse legumes like chickpea, red-gram, pea, lentil,black gram, etc., oil-seed legumes like soybean and groundnut and forage legumes like berseem and lucerne. It colonizes the roots of specific legumes to form tumour like growths called root nodules, which acts as factories of ammonia production. Rhizobium has ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in symbiotic association with legumes and certain nonlegumes like Parasponia. Rhizobium population in the soil depends on the presence of legume crops in the field. Azospirillum:- Belongs to family Spirilaceae, heterotrophic and associative in nature. In addition to their nitrogen fixing ability of about 20-40 kg/ha, they also produce growth regulating substances. The Azospirillum form associative symbiosis with many plants particularly with those having the C4-dicarboxyliac path way of photosynthesis (Hatch and Slack pathway), because they grow and fix nitrogen on salts of organic acids such as malic, aspartic acid (Arun, 2007a). Thus it is mainly recommended for maize, sugarcane, sorghum, pearl millet etc. They do not, however, produce any visible nodules or out growth on root tissue. Azotobacter-: Belongs to family Azotobacteriaceae, aerobic, free living, and heterotrophic in nature. Azotobacters are present in neutral or alkaline soils and A. chroococcum is the most commonly occurring. species in arable soils.. The number of Azotobacter rarely exceeds of 104 to 105 g-1 of soil due to lack of organic matter and presence of antagonistic microorganisms in soil. The bacterium produces anti-fungal antibiotics which inhibits the growth of several pathogenic fungi in the root region thereby preventing seedling mortality to a certain extent. The isolated culture of Azotobacter fixes about 10 mg nitrogen g-1 of carbon source under in vitro conditions. The occurrence of this organism has been reported from the rhizosphere of a number of crop plants such as rice, maize, sugarcane, bajra, vegetables and plantation crops, (Arun, 2007a). Blue Green Algae (Cyanobacteria) and Azolla -These belongs to eight different families, phototrophic in nature and produce Auxin, Indole acetic acid and Gibberllic acid, fix 20-30 kg N/ha in submerged rice fields as they are abundant in paddy, so also referred as paddy organisms. Most N fixing BGA are filamentous, consisting of chain of vegetative cells including specialized cells called heterocyst which function as micro nodule for synthesis and N fixing machinery. BGA forms symbiotic association capable of fixing nitrogen with fungi, liverworts, ferns and flowering plants, but the most common symbiotic association has been found between a free floating aquatic fern, the Azolla and Anabaena azollae (BGA). Besides N-fixation, these biofertilizers or biomanures also contribute significant amounts of P, K, S, Zn, Fe, Mb and other micronutrient. India has recently introduced some species of Azolla for their large biomass production, which are A.caroliniana, A. microphylla, A. filiculoid es and A. mexicana. Phosphate solubilizers -Several reports have examined the ability of different bacterial species to solubilize insoluble inorganic phosphate compounds, such as tricalcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate, hydroxyapatite, and rock phosphate. Among the bacterial genera with this capacity are pseudomonas, Bacillus, Rhizobium, Burkholderia, Achromobacter, Agrobacterium, Microccocus, Aereobacter, Flavobacterium and Erwinia. There are considerable populations of phosphatesolubilizing bacteria in soil and in plant rhizospheres. These include both aerobic and anaerobic strains, with a prevalence of aerobic strains in submerged soils. A considerably higher concentration of phosphate solubilizing bacteria is commonly found in the rhizosphere in comparison with non rhizosphere soil (Raghu and Macrae, 2000). The soil bacteria belonging to the genera Pseudomonas and Bacillus and Fungi are more common. The major microbiological means by which insoluble-P compounds are mobilized is by the production of organic acids, accompanied by acidification of the medium. Phosphate absorbers Mycorrhiza (an ancient symbiosis in organic agriculture)- The term Mycorrhiza denotes fungus roots. It is a symbiotic association between host plants and certain group of fungi at the root system, in which the fungal partner is benefited by obtaining its carbon requirements from the photosynthates of the host and the host in turn is benefited by obtaining the much needed nutrients especially phosphorus, calcium, copper, zinc etc., Zinc solubilizers The nitrogen fixers like Rhizobium, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, BGA and Phosphate solubilizing bacteria like B. magaterium, Pseudomonas striata, and phosphate mobilizing Mycorrhiza have been widely accepted as bio-fertilizers (Subba Roa, 2001a). However these supply only major nutrients like zinc, iron, copper etc., zinc being tmost important is found in the earths crust to the tune of 0.008 per cent but more than 50 per cent of Indian soils exhibit deficiency of zinc with content must below the critical level of 1.5 ppm of available zinc (Katyal and Rattan, 1993). There appears to be two main mechanisms of zinc fixation, one operates in acidic soils and is closely related with cat ion exchange and other operates in alkaline conditions where fixation takes by means of chemisorptions, ( chemisorptions of zinc on calcium carbonate formed a solid-solution of ZnCaCO3), and by complexation of organic ligands (Alloway, 2008). The zinc can be solubilized by microorganisms viz., B. subtilis, Thiobacillus thioxidans and Saccharomyces sp. These microorganisms can be used as bio-fertilizers for solubilization of fixed micronutrients like zinc (Raj, 2007). The results have shown that a Bacillus sp. (Zn solubilizing bacteria) can be used as bio-fertilizer for zinc or in soils where native zinc is higher or in conjunction with insoluble cheaper zinc compounds like zinc oxide (ZnO), zinc carbonate (ZnCO3) and zinc sulphide (ZnS) instead of costly zinc sulphate (Mahdi et al. 2010). Potential role of bio-fertilizers in agriculture Nitrogen-fixers (NFs) Phosphate solubilizers (PSBs) The incorporation of bio-fertilizers (Nfixers) plays major role in improving soil fertility, yield attributing characters and thereby final yield has been reported by many workers (Subashini et al. 2007a; Kachroo and Razdan, 2006; Son et al. 2007). In addition, their application in soil improves soil biota and minimizes the sole use of chemical fertilizers (Subashini et al. 2007a). Under temperate conditions, inoculation of Rhizobium improved number of pods plant-1, number of seed pod-1 and 1000-seed weight (g) and thereby yield over the control. The number of pods plant-1, number of seed pod-1 and 1000-seed weight (g) recorded were 25.5, 17.1 and 4.7 per cent more over the control, respectively which was statistically significant Bhat et al. (2009). In rice under low land conditions, the application of BGA+ Azospirillum proved significantly beneficial in improving LAI and all yield attributing aspects. Grain yield and harvest index also exhibit a discernable increase with use of bio fertilizers (Dar and Bali, 2007). Afzal, (2006) found that seed and straw yield of green gram increased significantly up to single inoculation with Rhizobium under 20 kg N + 45 kg P2O5 ha-1 fertility level. Field trials carried out in different locations have demonstrated that under certain environmental and soil conditions inoculation with azotobacteria has beneficial effects on plant yields. The effect of Azotobacter chroococcum on vegetative growth and yields of maize has been studied by numerous authors (Hussain et al., 1987; Martinez Toledo et al., 1988; Nieto and Frankenberger, 1991; Mishra et al., 1995; Pandey et al., 1998; Radwan, 1998), as well as the effect of inoculation with this bacterium on wheat (Emam et al., 1986; Rai and Gaur, 1988; Tippanavar and Reddy, 1993, Elshanshoury, 1995; Pati et al., 1995; Fares, 1997a). Alkaline phosphatase activity in the peach roots was highest with Azotobacter chroococcum + P fertilizer (Godara et al., 1995). Results of a greenhouse pot experiments with onion showed that application of G. fasciculatum + A. chrooccocum + 50% of the recommended P rate resulted in the greatest root length, plant height, bulb girth, bulb fresh weight, root colonization and P uptake (Mandhare et al. 1998). Inoculation with Azotobacter + Rhizobium + VAM gave the highest increase in straw and grain yield of wheat plants with rock phosphate as a Pfertilizer (Fares, 1997a). Elgala et al. (1995) concluded that with microbial inoculation rock phosphate could be used as cheap source of P in alkaline soils and that combined inoculation could reduce the rate of fertilizer required to maintain high productivity. It is an established fact that the efficiency of phosphatic fertilizers is very low (15-20%) due to its fixation in acidic and alkaline soils and unfortunately both soil types are predominating in India accounting more than 34% acidity affected and more than seven million hectares of productive land salinity/alkaline affected (Yawalkar e t al., 2000). Therefore, the inoculations with PSB and other useful microbial inoculants in these soils become mandatory to restore and maintain the effective microbial populations for solubilization of chemically fixed phosphorus and availability of other macro and micronutrients to harvest good sustainable yield of various crops. Commercial exploitation of phosphatic microbial inoculants can play an important role particularly in making the direct use of abundantly available low grade phosphate possible. Among the bacterial genera with this capacity are pseudomonas, Bacillus, Rhizobium, Burkholderia, Achromobacter, Agrobacterium, Microccocus, Aereobacter, Flavobacterium and Erwinia. Beside N-fixation and P-solubilization, the incorporation of nitrogen fixing bacteria (Azotobacter spp.) under the commercial name cerealien and phosphate dissolving bacteria (Bacillus megaterium) phosphorien has shown the highest degree in inducing the degree of the physiological tolerance to salinity which enables the stressed plants of the Seets cultivar of wheat to be adapted and keep better performance against all applied levels of salinity (3000, 6000 and 9000 ppm). This performance was reflected by the increase in growth, dry matter accumulation, yield as well as chemical constituents. All chemicals constituents including N, P, K+, sugars, proline and were increased as compared to their control treatments in the cultivar Seets. Mohmoud and Mohamad, 2008. Mycorrhizae The fungi that are probably most abundant in agricultural soils are arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. They account for 5- 50% of the biomass of soil microbes (Olsson et al., 1999). Biomass of hyphae of AM fungi may amount to 54-900 kg ha-1 (Zhu and Miller, 2003), and some products formed by them may account for another 3000 kg (Lovelock et al., 2004). Pools of organic carbon such as glomalin produced by AM fungi may even exceed soil microbial biomass by a factor of 10-20 (Rillig et al., 2001). The external mycelium attains as much as 3% of root weight (Jakobsen and Rosendahl, 1990). Approximately 10-100 m mycorrhizal mycelium can be found per cm root (McGonigle and Miller, 1999). The mineral acquisition from soil is considered to be the primary role of mycorrhizae, but they play various other roles as well which are of utmost important. CHAPTER 03 BIOFERTILIZER SECTORS IN INDIA: OVERVIEW Bio-fertilizers sector in India: An Overview Indian Biotechnology industry is considered as one of the sunrise sectors in India. The industry can be classified into five different segments. Biopharma,Agri-biotech, Bioinformatics, Bio-industrial and Bio services with each concentrating on a particular area. Bio pharma deals with the production of vaccines, therapeutics and diagnostics, while the end products of the biotech industry find two different kinds of buyers. Agri-biotech comprises of hybrid seeds and transgenic crops, biopesticides and biofertilizers. Bio informatics creates and maintains the extensive electronic databases on various biological systems. Bioservices market usually deals with clinical trial, contract research and manufacturing activities. Bio Industrial industry comprises of enzyme manufacturing and marketing companies and these enzymes are used in detergent, textile, food, leather, paper and pharmaceutical industry. Agri-biotech comprises of hybrid seeds and transgenic crops, biopesticides and biofertilizers. Agri-biotech comprises of hybrid seeds and transgenic crops, biopesticides and biofertilizers. t4ind15_fig2.jpg Bio-Agri is deals with the hybrid seeds and transgenic crops, biopesticides and one most important biofertilizer. Biofertilizer market in India growing with the rate of 12% by 2011-12. The first documented production of bio-fertilizers in the form of Rhizobium in India was in 1934 by M.R. Madhok (Yadav Raychaudhuri, 2004), but the first commercial production was initiated only in 1956 at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi and Agricultural College and Research Institute, Coimbatore. Growth in production remained very slow till the mid sixties (Tewatia, Kalwe and Chaudhuri, 2007). Introduction of Soybean along with Nitragin Soybean inoculant imported from USA in 1964 was the first major event in bio-fertilizers history of India. Encouraged by the success of Rhizobium inoculation in Soybean, efforts were made to replace the requirement of imported inoculant with locally produced inoculants for soybean in the first phase. This was the extended to other pulses and legu me oilseeds in the second phase. During 1965-1990 around 30 bio-fertilizers production laboratories were set up in the country to meet the demand (Venkataraman Tilak, 1990) and lot of schemes were formulated to popularize their use in different legume crops. Starting from few tonnes, production and consumption increased gradually and reached a moderate figure of 1000MT by 1988-89. During this period Rhizobium inoculants was dominating with other bio-fertilizers also starting to make their presence felt such as Azotobacter. Nineties saw a dramatic surge in bio-fertilizers industry with adding of new bio-fertilizers such as Azotobacter, Azospirillum, PSBs added to the list and total production jump from 1000MT(1989) to 10,000MT (2000) (Dwivedi and Motsara, 2001; Bhattacharya Dwivedi, 2004). The growth of bio-fertilizer started with the initiation of National Project on Development and use of Bio-fertilizers during 1983-84 which continued up

I Must Help Others :: Medicine College Admissions Essays

I Must Help Others    I grew up amidst the poverty and deprivation of the Third World, and for the majority of the twenty years that I lived in Jamaica, I lived with a sense of hopelessness. I lived with my mother, one brother, and two sisters in a one-bedroom house without any roof. The day before my final exams, during my first year in high school, we were evicted from the house. I never got another chance to take my exams, and I had to spend the next school year repeating the same classes.    At the age of thirteen, I dropped out of school for about nine months because we were without any resources. During that time out of school I came to realize the value of education. I realized that I could improve the quality of my life and that of the people around me with an education.    While in high school my decision to become a doctor became real. As a member of the Hospital Club I visited the Kingston Public Hospital and saw that there were people there that had been waiting for days to see a doctor because they could not afford to go elsewhere. I had to do something to help.    As I pause to think of the forces that have motivated and influenced me, I remember the harsh experiences that I have endured, and the obstacles I have overcome. But, I would rather focus on the positive experiences that I have had. In doing so, I recall the many times that I was called upon by the headmistress of my high school to teach a mathematics class when the teacher was out ill, including the class in which I was enrolled. I remember the many times that I was voted in as class monitor and I also recall during my senior year being one of the fifteen prefects for the student body, which consisted of approximately 1500 girls. These experiences gave me a sense of pride, dignity, and the will to carry on.    I graduated from high school in 1985, and during that summer I worked as a clerk at the Police Forensic Laboratory. My interest in Physics and Biology blossomed as I watched the ballistics and other experiments being performed in this Laboratory. These were classes that I had never taken before.

Fabric Softener Research Paper Essay

Fabric softeners help keep clothes soft and colorful. While many people use fabric softeners while they do their laundry, most are unaware of the chemicals that softeners use. Many softener manufacturers do not go into detail about the compounds they use to help soften fabric. Unfortunately, many softeners are made from a wide mixture of chemicals that can have potentially hazardous effects on the human body over time. Read more: What Are the Dangers of Fabric Softeners? | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/list_7588099_dangers-fabric-softeners.html#ixzz2JhHu6n72 1. rritation * Fabric softener companies do warn that their products can cause irritation, especially the liquid versions, and advise that you do not allow any fabric softener to touch your skin or your eyes. Some of the chemicals used to create these softeners are caustic and can cause itching or burning problems when the products accidentally contact skin. Respiratory Problems * Other chemicals in fabric softeners can cause lung problems and more significant irritation if they are inhaled. Benzyl alcohol, a common ingredient, acts as an upper respiratory tract irritant, while other compounds like A-Terpineol and pentane can also cause lung damage. These chemicals can cause asthma, especially in younger children. * Sponsored Links * Cars For Sale Philippines Brand New & Used Cars For Sale At Sulit Cars Buy And Sell Philippines Cars.Sulit.com.ph Carcinogens * Carcinogens are compounds that have been linked to causing cancer. It is difficult to pinpoint the substances that can actually cause cancer, and those linked to sufficient evidence are often banned (like asbestos). However, other chemicals may have been linked to cancer in some studies but have not yet been examined thoroughly enough to determine a direct link. Chemicals like chloroform and limonene are known as carcinogens and show up in fabric softeners. Nervous System Damage * Many of the compounds that cause skin irritation or may increase the possibility of cancer can also have a cumulative toxic effect if they are accidentally ingested. Ethanol, camphor and linalool can all cause nervous system damage. So can the previously mentioned chloroform and A-terpineol. Toxin exposure results in symptoms including dizziness, nausea, headaches, numbness and pain in the neck and spine. Fabric Problems * Some fabric softeners use tallow, a waxy material that can help protect clothing and keep it from being damaged as easily by stains. However, tallow can also render towels ineffective at absorbing water; since tallow repels liquids, towels can struggle to perform their jobs in bathrooms and kitchens. Tallow is also dangerous for the dryer lint filter, where it can cause clogging issues. Chronic Maladaptation * The human nervous system develops a condition when constantly exposed to the toxic chemicals that fabric softeners leave in clothing, becoming chronically maladapted to their presence. The effect the toxins have on the nervous system, though negative, can create an addictive-type response when they are constantly present. The nervous system begins to expect the toxins to be there and someone affected may not associate problems with fabric softener products, even on a physical level. This problem is exacerbated by fabric softeners that impregnate fabrics and continue to release their compounds over a long period of time. Sponsored Links * Detergents Stabilize Membrane Proteins Zitterionic, Non/Anionic Detergents www.avantilipids.com * Head & Shoulders Eliminate Dandruff Effectively! Leave your hair fresh and cleansed headandshoulders.ph/benefits * Product Suppliers Connect with over 120,000 suppliers from Hong Kong, China and Taiwan www.hktdc.com * Read more: What Are the Dangers of Fabric Softeners? | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/list_7588099_dangers-fabric-softeners.html#ixzz2JhI4pf00 The Toxic Danger of Fabric Softener and Dryer Sheets by SixWise.com Many people will remember a famous TV ad where a woman races to her washing machine, fabric softener in hand, only to arrive just as the wash ends. This woman who â€Å"e;forgot to ad the fabric softener†e; was actually doing herself and her family a favor. Although they may make your clothes feel soft and smell fresh, fabric softener and dryer sheets are some of the most toxic products around. And chances are thatthe staggering 99.8 percent of Americans who use common commercial detergents, fabric softeners, bleaches, and stain removers would think twice if they knew they contained chemicals that could cause cancer and brain damage. Fabric softeners and dryer sheets with scents like April Fresh and Summer Orchard add toxic chemicals to your laundry and, consequently, your body.| Here is a list of just some of the chemicals found in fabric softeners and dryer sheets: * Benzyl acetate:Linked to pancreatic cancer * Benzyl Alcohol:Upper respiratory tract irritant * Ethanol:On the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Hazardous Waste list and can cause central nervous system disorders * Limonene:Known carcinogen * A-Terpineol:Can cause respiratory problems, including fatal edema, and central nervous system damage * Ethyl Acetate:A narcotic on the EPA’s Hazardous Waste list * Camphor:Causes central nervous system disorders * Chloroform:Neurotoxic, anesthetic and carcinogenic * Linalool:A narcotic that causes central nervous system disorders * Pentane:A chemical known to be harmful if inhaled So how could products with pretty names like Soft Ocean Mist, Summer Orchard and April Fresh be so dangerous? The chemicals in fabric softeners are pungent and strong smelling — so strong that they require the use of these heavy fragrances (think 50 times as much fragrance) just to cover up the smells. Furthermore, synthetic fabrics, which are the reason fabric softeners were created in the first place, do not smell good either when heated in a dryer or heated by our bodies †¦ hence the need for even more hefty fragrances. In other words, remove all the added fragrance that endears people to fabric softeners and — like the clichà © wolf in sheep’s clothing — the real smells of the chemical-laced fabric softener and the synthetic fabrics they were designed around may prompt people to shoot their laundry machines and be done with it. Are â€Å"e;Soft†e; Clothes Worth It? Fabric softeners are made to stay in your clothing for long periods of time. As such, chemicals are slowly released either into the air for you to inhale or onto your skin for you to absorb. Dryer sheets are particularly noxious because they are heated in the dryer and the chemicals are released through dryer vents and out into the environment. Health effects from being exposed to the chemicals in fabric softeners include: * Central nervous system disorders * Headaches * Nausea * Vomiting * Dizziness * Blood pressure reduction * Irritation to skin, mucus membranes and respiratory tract * Pancreatic cancer A 100% Non-Toxic, Economical Solution!The Static Eliminator’s woven sheets take static cling out, and soften fabric without any toxic chemicals whatsoever — plus they areincredibly economical, as one box can be used to maximum effectiveness 500 times! (Or go for the super-economical double-pack for 1000 loads!) * Completely Non-Toxic: The unique technology is based on the weave of the cloth so it is chemical-free! * Very Economical! Each box highly effective for 500 loads of laundry! (To do 500 loads with chemical based dryer sheets takes 13 boxes!) * 100% Hypoallergenic — Safe for infants, allergy sufferers, eczema sufferers, and the chemically sensitive * Softens Clothes & Eliminates Staticwithout any harsh toxins * Safe for Even the Most Delicate Fabrics * Works at Any Heat Setting , with any amount of clothing * Won’t Stain or Spot Clothing * Easier to Use & Reduces Waste: Unlike conventional dryer sheets that must be discarded, just leave the 100% safe polynylon Static Eliminator sheet right in the dr yer for load after load * Won’t Clog Up Your Dryer Vents because it contains NO chemicals!Learn More About Static Eliminator Now!| Soften Your Clothes Safely With These Tips Even if you don’t feel the effects of these chemicals today, they can affect you gradually over time, and children, whose systems are still developing, are particularly at risk.There’s really no reason to expose yourself to these risky chemicals when natural alternatives exist. Not only are they safer for you, your family and the environment, but they’re much more economical too: * Learn about Static Eliminator, a 100% safe, non-toxic dryer sheet system that is more effective at softening clothes and eliminating static cling but poses no risk to you and your family! This is one of the most highly recommended of all products we have reviewed, and you will find it is also extremely economical, too! * Add a quarter cup of baking soda to wash cycle to soften fabric * Add a quarter cup of white vinegar to rinse to soften fabric and eliminate cling * Check out your local health food store for a natural fabric softener that uses a natural base like soy instead of chemicals It’s likely that fabric softeners and dryer sheets aren’t the only toxic products in your home. Many household products that consumers regard as safe are also full of toxic chemicals. Our past articles onPEG Compounds in CosmeticsandPhenols in Common Household Cleansersare two of the all-time most popular articles on SixWise.com and will make you more aware of the pervasiveness of harmful chemicals that can be eliminated from your home. http://shop.sixwise.com/thetoxicdangeroffabricsofteneranddryersheets2805.aspx The Hidden Life Of†¦ Laundry By Chris Borris Ah, clean! Fresh-smelling towels, chubby-cheeked cherubs snuggling into soft blankets that have been lovingly bathed in chlorine, benzene, formaldehyde . . . what?! That’s not part of the image, but it is the reality for the 99.8 percent of Americans who use common commercial detergents, fabric softeners, bleaches, and stain removers. Plus doing our laundry burns through hundreds of thousands of barrels of oil and sends millions of pounds of chlorine into our air and water each year. But we don’t have to put our health—or the environment—at risk to get our clothes brighter and whiter. Recipes for homemade greener cleaners abound, and nontoxic, eco-friendly laundry products are no longer rare. Looking for the best of the conventional brands, on the other hand, isn’t always easy. Cleaning-product ingredients are considered â€Å"trade secrets,† so manufacturers aren’t required to list all of them on the label. (Environmentally friendly b rands often do list ingredients, since they have nothing to hide.) Philip Dickey, staff scientist at the Washington Toxics Coalition, advises consumers to look for products with specific, rather than general, claims: â€Å"90 percent biodegraded in three days,† not just â€Å"biodegradable†; â€Å"contains no phosphates,† not simply â€Å"environmentally safe.† Detergents and Bleaches: Thanks to activist efforts, many major makers of laundry products have reduced their use of phosphates, minerals that promote rapid (and ecologically dangerous) algae growth in lakes and streams. But the active ingredients in most detergents (called â€Å"surfactants†) are still derived from petroleum, so the environmental damage starts with drilling, spilling, and refining oil—and can end with toxic residues contaminating our water and soil. Artificial fragrances, bleaches, and other additives in these â€Å"spring fresh† brews can cause rashes and aggravate asthma. Avoid these dangers by cleaning the old-fashioned way : with plant-based, fragrance-free soaps (and non-chlorine bleaches). Dry Cleaning: Ever notice a harsh chemical smell clinging to your dry-cleaned clothes? That’s perchloroethylene, or â€Å"perc,† a solvent that can cause dizziness, fatigue, confusion, nausea, and skin irritation in high doses, and—for those exposed to it repeatedly—liver damage and increased risk of miscarriage. Our air, soil, and water fare little better than our bodies: According to Greenpeace, 10 percent of drinking-water wells in California are contaminated with perc. And incinerating the chemical along with other hazardous waste generates dioxins and other pollutants. The Federal Trade Commission is proposing changing â€Å"dry-clean only† labels to recognize alternative methods, including â€Å"wet cleaning,† a nontoxic, nonpolluting process that uses water and biodegradable soap. To find a wet cleaner near you, consult the Professional Wetcleaning Network (www.tpwn.net). Stain Removers and Fabric Softeners: They may make your clothes look and feel clean, but these products can leave your garments tainted by formaldehyde and irritating synthetic fragrances. Spot removers also contain the pernicious perchloroethylene. A healthier alternative is probably as close as your kitchen cupboard: Some swear by egg yolk and lukewarm water for coffee stains, or sour milk or lemon juice followed by a salt rub and sun-drying for rust. Home Safe Home author Debra Lynn Dadd favors an all-purpose mixture of borax dissolved in cold water to treat blood, chocolate, coffee, and mildew stains. Clothes can be softened by adding baking soda during the rinse cycle. Look for a fabric softener with a natural base (such as soy) rather than one made from chemicals. Washing: Why waste 40 gallons of water to do an average load of laundry? Front-loading washers use one-third to one-half the water and less soap than conventional top-loaders—and they’re gentler on clothes and wring them drier in the spin cycle, cutting dryer time and energy use. Although they may cost twice as much as conventional washers, Consumers Union estimates that you can earn the money back in as little as six years of savings on water and energy bills. (The EPA’s Energy Star program provides buying tips atwww.energystar.gov.) Use even less energy by choosing the cold-water cycle, reserving warm water for your grimiest duds. Since 86 percent of the energy consumed by a washing machine goes to heating the water, one household can eliminate 1,600 pounds of annual carbon dioxide emissions by washing in cold. Drying: The saints among us line-dry every load. The rest of us can make sure dryers are efficient, vented, cleaned, and kept in a heated space. Use the cooler permanent-press cycle, which takes advantage of residual heat. And try line-drying, at least in the summer: Not only will you prevent hundreds of pounds of CO2 from warming our planet, but your clothes will smell great, too. http://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/200209/hidden_printable.asp

Free Essays on Revolutionaries Business

Question 1. Social responsibility in America as compared to CESA. America, the land of opportunity! Or so it is believed throughout the world. For centuries, immigrants have traveled from afar to reach America in search of a new life with the promise of prosperity. They heard that the streets are lined with gold, and all they have to do is pick it up from the ground. When America was young, anyone, including natives would have been hard pressed not to prosper. With a lot of hard work and determination, anyone could make a fortune. Have times have changed that much? Anyone who wants to prosper still can. But why is it that the vast majority doesn’t? Statistics show that 98% of Americans at age 65 will either be dead or broke. Have we sold our own people bill of goods? Unfortunately, we’ve done the opposite. We have instituted a welfare system that promises to take care of them no matter what. It doesn’t make any difference if you are legitimately incapacitated and unable to work, or just plain lazy. We’ve ta ught Americans to work hard, but not smart and that it is okay to become complacent and even play the system. Immigrants still come to this country and find a way to prosper. They work hard and smart. They save and invest. They build their own businesses and reap the rewards. They don’t expect to get something for nothing. Unfortunately (or perhaps fortunately), most countries don’t have such programs. This leaves people, as individuals to fend for themselves and their families, or in the case of the Colombian business leaders to form an association to deal with the shortcomings of the government. Colegio de Estudios Superiores Administracion (CESA) was formed to help not only the community, but also the young men and women who want to succeed in a difficult economy. The business leaders who formed this organization are well aware that the government can not, and will not do what we in the Am... Free Essays on Revolutionaries Business Free Essays on Revolutionaries Business Question 1. Social responsibility in America as compared to CESA. America, the land of opportunity! Or so it is believed throughout the world. For centuries, immigrants have traveled from afar to reach America in search of a new life with the promise of prosperity. They heard that the streets are lined with gold, and all they have to do is pick it up from the ground. When America was young, anyone, including natives would have been hard pressed not to prosper. With a lot of hard work and determination, anyone could make a fortune. Have times have changed that much? Anyone who wants to prosper still can. But why is it that the vast majority doesn’t? Statistics show that 98% of Americans at age 65 will either be dead or broke. Have we sold our own people bill of goods? Unfortunately, we’ve done the opposite. We have instituted a welfare system that promises to take care of them no matter what. It doesn’t make any difference if you are legitimately incapacitated and unable to work, or just plain lazy. We’ve ta ught Americans to work hard, but not smart and that it is okay to become complacent and even play the system. Immigrants still come to this country and find a way to prosper. They work hard and smart. They save and invest. They build their own businesses and reap the rewards. They don’t expect to get something for nothing. Unfortunately (or perhaps fortunately), most countries don’t have such programs. This leaves people, as individuals to fend for themselves and their families, or in the case of the Colombian business leaders to form an association to deal with the shortcomings of the government. Colegio de Estudios Superiores Administracion (CESA) was formed to help not only the community, but also the young men and women who want to succeed in a difficult economy. The business leaders who formed this organization are well aware that the government can not, and will not do what we in the Am...

Nikola tessla essays

Nikola tessla essays Nikola Tesla was a brilliant scientist who was robbed of many of his ideas. Tesla captured the power of Niagara Falls. He transmitted electricity, had a wireless communications patent. He also viewed what is thought to be the first X-Ray and had patents and experiments to do with guided missiles, radios, and TVs. Tesla was great at envisioning things. Tesla was an immigrant who was very arrogant and proud. Nikola worked with Thomas Edison and George Westinghouse. JP Morgan funded Nikola for a while then he hung him to dry. Teslas ideas created billion dollar companies. Nikola Tesla was born on midnight in Austria-Hungry on July 9-10 in 1856. His father was an Orthodox priest. At 21, Nikola started college and he was obsessed with electricity. By age 28, Tesla had moved to the United States with 4 cents and a letter of recommendation from one of Edisons European friends. Tesla moved to the United States in 1884, where he worked for Thomas Edison who quickly became a rival. Edison was an advocate of the inferior DC power transmission system. During this time, Tesla was commissioned with the design of the AC generators installed at Niagara Falls. George Westinghouse purchased the patents to his induction motor and made it the basis of the Westinghouse power system. This system still underlies the modern electrical power industry today. Tesla's main claim to fame lay with his invention of the alternating current motor. Tesla believed that alternating current was vastly superior to Edison's direct current, but the problem was the lack of a practical motor. Alternating current is practical because of the fact that it can be altered or converted to suit a variety of situations. For example, if the voltage is made quite high, then the current necessary for a specific level of power is very low. This low current then becomes very efficient when sending electrical power over very long wires. Tesla also worked with rad...

The Ballot or the bullet and its meaning Essays - Free Essays

The Ballot or the bullet and its meaning Essays - Free Essays The Ballot or the bullet and its meaning The Ballot or the bullet and its meaning University of Phoenix ENG/496 Angela Mullennix All of us have suffered here, in this country, political oppression at the hands of the white man, economic exploitation at the hands of the white man, and social degradation at the hands of the white man. (Malcom X, 1964) That is the line that stuck out at the beginning of the speech. Malcom X seemed to be tired of everything that was going on including the bad justice system with the false arrest, the dogs and firehoses, and also the religious aspect being brought into a complex situation that in moments he didnt feel was necessary to bring up. He said in the speech Although I'm still a Muslim, I'm not here tonight to discuss my religion. I'm not here to try and change your religion. I'm not here to argue or discuss anything that we differ about, because it's time for us to submerge our differences and realize that it is best for us to first see that we have the same problem, a common problem, a problem that will make you catch hell whether you're a Baptist, or a Methodist, or a Mu slim, or a nationalist. Whether you're educated or illiterate, whether you live on the boulevard or in the alley, you're going to catch hell just like I am. We're all in the same boat and we all are going to catch the same hell from the same man. He just happens to be a white man. All of us have suffered here, in this country, political oppression at the hands of the white man, economic exploitation at the hands of the white man, and social degradation at the hands of the white man. (Malcom X, 1964) This is a profound speech not only for the content in it but the fact that he seemed to touch on the point of acceptance from everyone. Equal opportunity to be treated as a human. He says Now in speaking like this, it doesn't mean that we're anti-white, but it does mean we're anti-exploitation, we're anti-degradation, and were anti-oppression. And if the white man doesn't want us to be anti-him let him stop oppressing and exploiting and degrading us. He wasnt a racist, but he wanted equality and thats probably the best part I can relate to. From experience it is irritating watching a person walk across the street because they assume I am a criminal, and while some statistics back that fact up it is irritating when I am a educated African American that served my country, so that people can continue to have the freedoms they poses today. I loved this speech, not for its anti-Semitism but for the purpose of it. Work Cited X, M. (1963, April 3). Malcolm X: The Ballot or the Bullet. Retrieved July 27, 2015, from edchange.org/multicultural/speeches/malcolm_x_ballot.html Dixon, E. (2011, January 4). Realism and Modernism, the Black Arts Movement, and Contemporary Literature. Retrieved July 27, 2015, from https://eng351wi2011finalproject.wordpress.com/about/education-and-literacy/realism-and-modernism/

Human Sexuality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Human Sexuality - Essay Example Men do not seem to have as many body images as women do. Men and women do think about their bodies differently. Men seem to be more confident that women. I believe this is a society stereotype. Men are never portrayed as too old. An example would be Hugh Hefner. Despite looking like an old man, Hefner is always surrounded by young women. Not just one young devotee, but Hefner is dating three or four women at a time. I believe in this instance it is Hefner’s confidence, not his looks that make him appealing to women. His money does not hurt either. On the other hand, when an older woman dates or marries a younger man, like Demi Moore and Ashton Kutcher, the woman is a cougar. Even Demi has tried to keep up a youthful image with cosmetic surgeries. Women are more pressured to look young. Another way that men and women differ about their body image is weight. An overweight man can still attract women. In restaurants or in public I have observed fat men show up with a date more than fat women. This is reflected in the media as well. For example Kevin James, James Gandolfini, and other actors are shown with skinny partners on and off the screen. They also get more press than heavy female stars. I also feel that race has to do with body image. African American women are more comfortable with their bodies than white women. No matter the size, African American women wear makeup, dress up, and portray a sense of pride. Heavier white women tend to wear baggy clothes, no makeup, and try to hide themselves from society. Black men seem to accept heavier women and find that more attractive. White men want skinny women with big breasts. Another body image point that Americans perpetrate is the tanned blonde that stands about 5’10 and weighs about 100 lbs. Ethnic models are sometimes accepted if blue eyed, but dark black models are discouraged. Ethnic hair is also discouraged. African American women wear wigs and straighten their hair. I

ART Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 17

ART - Essay Example Some portions have smooth textures – those areas where the interweaving takes place; but there are also sections that appear to have coarse feel and appearance – areas near the horn-like edge right on its crest. The sculpture takes a relatively miniature scale of some symbolic gothic structures of Greece or Italy. It is quite symmetrical although there are fragments that look distorted, perhaps because of age; and the colour is much more saturated than pale. I think that there is an original intention to express oldness or flow of time. The sculpture overall resembles a diminutive figure of an archaic piece of structure that is adhered by the wild vines or some type of lianas or trailing plants. This adherence is emphasized in order to retain the underlying meaning of this particular artwork, that is, â€Å"the fleeting of time†, regardless of the extent at which this artwork shall exist. The inscription of some unfamiliar scripts or symbols relate to the interweaving vines in that it suggests of the aimed oldness of the artwork, whether it is a representation of another piece of art of a larger scale or it is the sculpture itself. Another magnificent piece of art was made by Mahonri Young. The geometry of the sculpture is rather consolidated because it uses human figures to convey its message. It is quite difficult to display an overwhelming geometrical clarity or symmetry when using human figures. The colour is highly saturated. It stresses on the boldness of colour that corresponds to the nature of the sports being depicted. Not much contrast in colour is shown on the sculpture. It is small in scale. It has a very smooth texture and is even all throughout. Perhaps, it is because of the material being used. There is a subtle connection between the colour and the description of the sculpture. It portrays a bloody sport, which is, boxing. Its use of a duskier shade somehow unveils the concealed meaning of the artwork. Moreover, the definite muscular

The sun also rises Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The sun also rises - Essay Example Even though the generation following the war was usually referred to as â€Å"The Lost Generation†, the title of the book and its closing content is quite optimistic. Of course there may be many reasons why Hemingway chose this title and this paper will review his reasons for why he chose it. Jake Barnes, the main character and the narrator of the novel, was a veteran of The World War I, who later worked as a journalist in Paris. This book is a narration of the problems he had faced following the war and how he finally recovered from them. The author probably takes this as the theme behind the title. The initial pages of the book, recounts an injury that had caused many troubles to Jake, one among which included his inability to have sex. This had made Jack feel insecure about his masculinity and that he is less of a man that he was before. The fact that Brett, who was the love of his life, refused to enter into a relationship with Jake because of his impotency had made him feel very unhappy and depressed and had added to his insecurity. In many ways Jake was a typical member of what Gertrude Stein called â€Å"The Lost Generation†, which referred to the generation that experienced the grueling effects of World War 1, and when people had lost their belief in moral ity, faith and justice. The people of the Lost Generation lived an aimless life and spent their time engaged in worthless activities like boozing and dancing. In the early chapters of the book Jake’s character reminds the reader of the people of the Lost Generation, as he spent most of his time in the bar getting drunk. However, in the later chapters of the book and true its title, the sun does begin to shine on Jake. It narrates how Jake learned to find a solution for his problems, and how he no longer considered his impotency as a major issue. One realizes this for the first time when Jake goes out fishing in Burguete with his friend Bill Gorton. There, Jake truly enjoys his

Human Growth and Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 3

Human Growth and Development - Essay Example Being a believer of religion, spirituality and spiritual development has been part of my life. Erikson’s nine stages psychosocial development theory is very important for understanding the process of human growth and development. This theory is based on nine stages and each stage has its own socio psychological dimension and aspects (Beyers and Seiffge-Krenke, 2010). In addition, each stage has its own typical developmental characteristics which subsequently determine the personality traits and characteristics in the upcoming developmental phases of human life. For example, first stage, which starts from birth to 1 year, is known as trust vs. mistrust, highlights the psychological process of identification in which new born child determines between trust or mistrust on others. The second stage, from 2 to 3, has been identified as autonomy vs. shame and doubt and the main features of this stage include increased physical activity along with decisional authority to determine whether to assert will on others. Kroger (2007) mentions that Erikson supports the concept of hie rarchical integration in which a strong sense of identity is identified as the central to entire theme of theory. The third stage, known as initiative vs. guilt, between 4 to 5, is more relevant and child is more curious and tries to mould things and objects. In the fourth stage, which is industry vs. inferiority, between 6 to puberty, experience the rise of curiosity about things in which more inquisitive behavior and thinking develop till the age of puberty. In the fifth stage, identity vs. identity confusion, which occurs in the period of adolescence, is mainly confronted with the fundamental question of personal identity (who am I?). In this regard, Beyers and Goossens (2008) contend that some parents may not able to provide a required level of support to their children for exploring the identity issues. In the sixth stage, known as intimacy vs. isolation, which

Microcosmos Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Microcosmos - Essay Example The orders which are presented in the Microcosm film encompasses dragonfly, grasshoppers, rhinoceros beetle, praying mantis, moth, cutworm, ant, dung beetles, wasps, sacred beetle, bee, climbing caterpillar, wriggler, swallow-tail butterfly, 3rd instar larvae hatching into butterfly, black ants, spiders in their spider web, cricket, pavement ant, ladybird with seven spots, great peacock moth and a mosquito. In addition, cabbage looper caterpillar is also depicted.The behaviors exhibited include geotropism which is seen in the growing plant tendrils. In addition, insect pollination is also exhibited. Also, a bee is portrayed sucking nectar from a full blown flower. In addition, black ants are seen feeding on excretion materials from the thrips. Also, lady birds are seen mating. Caterpillars are also seen depicting mimicry and camouflage to evade predators. In addition, the slug is seen gliding in a moist environment covered with green grass. Slugs are also seen mating. One of the most surprising bit about the film is the bit a caterpillar is seen breaking out of a cocoon and then feeding on it afterwards. Furthermore, the film shows a spider which abruptly pounces on a grasshopper and stops it from escaping by deploying its spider web to tie them up. It’s fascinating to observe how insects are trapped in a spider web and later fed on by the king spider. An additional intriguing observation is made on how preys are trapped then wrapped by a spider web to paralyse them to enhance the liberty of the king spider to feed on them.

Diversity, Equity, and Standards Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Diversity, Equity, and Standards - Research Paper Example A number of the minorities’ families experience poverty. These factors create a cycle of poor education, lesser job opportunities, lower income, and a negative social reputation. Specifically, minorities due to their racial background are usually at a disadvantage in the classroom due to language barriers. Several students find it hard to relate to the contexts used in text books and other teaching materials due to cultural differences. Furthermore, institutionalized discrimination keeps African Americans or other minorities on the bench in several kinds of sports. Their coaches’ low expectation of them also happens inside the classroom. As a result, these students are not motivated to excel. Similarly, a number of schools feel the segregation since black teachers cater to black students. It appears that these teachers do not have any other place to teach. To address the abovementioned concerns, a legislation that focuses on these issues must be passed. This will enhance public awareness and inspire greater advocacy for equal quality schooling. Additionally, the government, private organizations, and able individuals should fund researches and other noble causes that look into the minority groups such as Native and African Americans. Mass media should also take part in influencing the masses to fully accept and work with all kinds of people. In general, each has a vital role to achieve in promoting equity in the education system. 2. There are several intelligence tests that are not culture friendly. For instance, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) which is used in some institutions has some questions that are not so familiar with the minority groups. WAIS consists of questions about incomplete pictures such as a house during a snowy day (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2009). Some Asian or Native Americans may not be familiar with the typical Western-European kind of house. Moreover, achievement scores have a

Human Growth and Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 3

Human Growth and Development - Essay Example Being a believer of religion, spirituality and spiritual development has been part of my life. Erikson’s nine stages psychosocial development theory is very important for understanding the process of human growth and development. This theory is based on nine stages and each stage has its own socio psychological dimension and aspects (Beyers and Seiffge-Krenke, 2010). In addition, each stage has its own typical developmental characteristics which subsequently determine the personality traits and characteristics in the upcoming developmental phases of human life. For example, first stage, which starts from birth to 1 year, is known as trust vs. mistrust, highlights the psychological process of identification in which new born child determines between trust or mistrust on others. The second stage, from 2 to 3, has been identified as autonomy vs. shame and doubt and the main features of this stage include increased physical activity along with decisional authority to determine whether to assert will on others. Kroger (2007) mentions that Erikson supports the concept of hie rarchical integration in which a strong sense of identity is identified as the central to entire theme of theory. The third stage, known as initiative vs. guilt, between 4 to 5, is more relevant and child is more curious and tries to mould things and objects. In the fourth stage, which is industry vs. inferiority, between 6 to puberty, experience the rise of curiosity about things in which more inquisitive behavior and thinking develop till the age of puberty. In the fifth stage, identity vs. identity confusion, which occurs in the period of adolescence, is mainly confronted with the fundamental question of personal identity (who am I?). In this regard, Beyers and Goossens (2008) contend that some parents may not able to provide a required level of support to their children for exploring the identity issues. In the sixth stage, known as intimacy vs. isolation, which

Diversity, Equity, and Standards Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Diversity, Equity, and Standards - Research Paper Example A number of the minorities’ families experience poverty. These factors create a cycle of poor education, lesser job opportunities, lower income, and a negative social reputation. Specifically, minorities due to their racial background are usually at a disadvantage in the classroom due to language barriers. Several students find it hard to relate to the contexts used in text books and other teaching materials due to cultural differences. Furthermore, institutionalized discrimination keeps African Americans or other minorities on the bench in several kinds of sports. Their coaches’ low expectation of them also happens inside the classroom. As a result, these students are not motivated to excel. Similarly, a number of schools feel the segregation since black teachers cater to black students. It appears that these teachers do not have any other place to teach. To address the abovementioned concerns, a legislation that focuses on these issues must be passed. This will enhance public awareness and inspire greater advocacy for equal quality schooling. Additionally, the government, private organizations, and able individuals should fund researches and other noble causes that look into the minority groups such as Native and African Americans. Mass media should also take part in influencing the masses to fully accept and work with all kinds of people. In general, each has a vital role to achieve in promoting equity in the education system. 2. There are several intelligence tests that are not culture friendly. For instance, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) which is used in some institutions has some questions that are not so familiar with the minority groups. WAIS consists of questions about incomplete pictures such as a house during a snowy day (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2009). Some Asian or Native Americans may not be familiar with the typical Western-European kind of house. Moreover, achievement scores have a

How to Make a Transistor Radio Essay Example for Free

How to Make a Transistor Radio Essay First a few safety precautions: * Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron. They are very hot (about 400Â °C) and will give you a nasty burn. * Take great care to avoid touching the mains flex with the tip of the iron. The iron should have a heatproof flex for extra protection. An ordinary plastic flex will melt immediately if touched by a hot iron and there is a serious risk of burns and electric shock. * Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use. Never put it down on your workbench, even for a moment! * Work in a well-ventilated area. The smoke formed as you melt solder is mostly from the flux and quite irritating. Avoid breathing it by keeping you head to the side of, not above, your work. * Wash your hands after using solder. Solder contains lead which is a poisonous metal. If you are unlucky (or careless!) enough to burn yourself please read the First Aid section. Preparing the soldering iron: * Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug in. The iron will take a few minutes to reach its operating temperature of about 400Â °C. * Dampen the sponge in the stand. The best way to do this is to lift it out the stand and hold it under a cold tap for a moment, then squeeze to remove excess water. It should be damp, not dripping wet. * Wait a few minutes for the soldering iron to warm up. You can check if it is ready by trying to melt a little solder on the tip. * Wipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge. This will clean the tip. * Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron. This is called tinning and it will help the heat to flow from the irons tip to the joint. It only needs to be done when you plug in the iron, and occasionally while soldering if you need to wipe the tip clean on the sponge. You are now ready to start soldering: * Hold the soldering iron like a pen, near the base of the handle. Imagine you are going to write your name! Remember to never touch the hot element or tip. * Touch the soldering iron onto the joint to be made. Make sure it touches both the component lead and the track. Hold the tip there for a few seconds and * Feed a little solder onto the joint. It should flow smoothly onto the lead and track to form a volcano shape as shown in the diagram. Apply the solder to the joint, not the iron. * Remove the solder, then the iron, while keeping the joint still. Allow the joint a few seconds to cool before you move the circuit board. * Inspect the joint closely. It should look shiny and have a volcano shape. If not, you will need to reheat it and feed in a little more solder. This time ensure that boththe lead and track are heated fully before applying solder. If you are unlucky (or careless!) enough to burn yourself please read the First Aid section. Some components, such as transistors, can be damaged by heat when soldering so if you are not an expert it is wise to use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the component body. You can buy a special tool, but a standard crocodile clip works just as well and is cheaper. Soldering Advice for Components It is very tempting to start soldering components onto the circuit board straight away, but please take time to identify all the parts first. You are much less likely to make a mistake if you do this! 1. Stick all the components onto a sheet of paper using sticky tape. 2. Identify each component and write its name or value beside it. 3. Add the code (R1, R2, C1 etc.) if necessary. Many projects from books and magazines label the components with codes (R1, R2, C1, D1 etc.) and you should use the projects parts list to find these codes if they are given. 4. Resistor values can be found using the resistor colour code which is explained on our Resistors page. You can print out and make your own Resistor Colour Code Calculator to help you. 5. Capacitor values can be difficult to find because there are many types with different labelling systems! The various systems are explained on our Capacitors page. Some components require special care when soldering. Many must be placed the correct way round and a few are easily damaged by the heat from soldering. Appropriate warnings are given in the table below, together with other advice which may be useful when soldering. What is solder? Solder is an alloy (mixture) of tin and lead, typically 60% tin and 40% lead. It melts at a temperature of about 200Â °C. Coating a surface with solder is called tinning because of the tin content of solder. Lead is poisonous and you should always wash your hands after using solder. Solder for electronics use contains tiny cores of flux, like the wires inside a mains flex. The flux is corrosive, like an acid, and it cleans the metal surfaces as the solder melts. This is why you must melt the solder actually on the joint, not on the iron tip. Without flux most joints would fail because metals quickly oxidise and the solder itself will not flow properly onto a dirty, oxidised, metal surface. The best size of solder for electronics is 22swg (swg = standard wire gauge). Soldering is defined as the joining of metals by a fusion of alloys which have relatively low melting points. In other words, you use a metal that has a low melting point to adhere the surfaces to be soldered together. Consider that soldering is more like gluing with molten metal, unlike welding where the base metals are actually melted and combined. Soldering is also a must have skill for all sorts of electrical and electronics work. It is also a skill that must be taught correctly and developed with practice. This tutorial will cover the most common types of soldering required for electronics work. This includes soldering components to printed circuit boards and soldering a spliced wire joint. Soldering Equipment The Soldering Iron/Gun The first thing you will need is a soldering iron, which is the heat source used to melt solder. Irons of the 15W to 30W range are good for most electronics/printed circuit board work. Anything higher in wattage and you risk damaging either the component or the board. If you intend to solder heavy components and thick wire, then you will want to invest in an iron of higher wattage (40W and above) or one of the large soldering guns. The main difference between an iron and a gun is that an iron is pencil shaped and designed with a pinpoint heat source for precise work, while a gun is in a familiar gun shape with a large high wattage tip heated by flowing electrical current directly through it. For hobbyist electronics use, a soldering iron is generally the tool of choice as its small tip and low heat capacity is suited for printed circuit board work (such as assembling kits). A soldering gun is generally used in heavy duty soldering such as joining heavy gauge wires, soldering brackets to a chassis or stained glass work. You should choose a soldering iron with a 3-pronged grounding plug. The ground will help prevent stray voltage from collecting at the soldering tip and potentially damaging sensitive (such as CMOS) components. By their nature, soldering guns are quite dirty in this respect as the heat is generated by shorting a current (often AC) through the tip made of formed wire. Guns will have much less use in hobbyist electronics so if you have only one tool choice, an iron is what you want. For a beginner, a 15W to 30W range is the best but be aware that at the 15W end of that range, you may not have enough power to join wires or larger components. As your skill increases, a 40W iron is an excellent choice as it has the capacity for slightly larger jobs and makes joints very quickly. Be aware that it is often best to use a more powerful iron so that you dont need to spend a lot of time heating the joint, which can damage components. A variation of the basic gun or iron is the soldering station, where the soldering instrument is attached to a variable power supply. A soldering station can precisely control the temperature of the soldering tip unlike a standard gun or iron where the tip temperature will increase when idle and decrease when applying heat to a joint. However, the price of a soldering station is often ten to one hundred times the cost of a basic iron and thus really isnt an option for the hobby market. But if you plan to do very precise work, such as surface mount, or spend 8 hours a day behind a soldering iron, then you should consider a soldering station. The rest of this document will assume that you are using a soldering iron as that is what the majority of electronics work requires. The techniques for using a soldering gun are basically the same with the only difference being that heat is only generated when the trigger is pressed. Solder The choice of solder is also important. There several kinds of solder available but only a few are suitable for electronics work. Most importantly, you will only use rosin core solder. Acid core solder is common in hardware stores and home improvement stores, but meant for soldering copper plumbing pipes and not electronic circuits. If acid core solder is used on electronics, the acid will destroy the traces on the printed circuit board and erode the component leads. It can also form a conductive layer leading to shorts. For most printed circuit board work, a solder with a diameter of 0.75MM to 1.0MM is desirable. Thicker solder may be used and will allow you to solder larger joints more quickly, but will make soldering small joints difficult and increase the likelihood of creating solder bridges between closely spaced PCB pads. An alloy of 60/40 (60% tin, 40% lead) is used for most electronics work. These days, several lead-free solders are available as well. Kester 44 Rosin Core solder has been a staple of electronics for many years and continues to be available. It is available in several diameters and has a non-corrosive flux. Large joints, such as soldering a bracket to a chassis using a high wattage soldering gun, will require a separate application of brush on flux and a thick diameter solder of several millimeters. Remember that when soldering, the flux in the solder will release fumes as it is heated. These fumes are harmful to your eyes and lungs. Therefore, always work in a well ventilated area and avoid breathing the smoke created. Hot solder is also dangerous. It is surprisingly easy to splash hot solder onto yourself, which is a thoroughly unpleasant experience. Eye protection is also advised. Preparing To Solder Tinning The Soldering Tip Before use, a new soldering tip, or one that is very dirty, must be tinned. Tinning is the process of coating a soldering tip with a thin coat of solder. This aids in heat transfer between the tip and the component you are soldering, and also gives the solder a base from which to flow from. Step 1: Warm Up The Iron Warm up the soldering iron or gun thoroughly. Make sure that it has fully come to temperature because you are about to melt a lot of solder on it. This is especially important if the iron is new because it may have been packed with some kind of coating to prevent corrosion. Step 2: Prepare A Little Space While the soldering iron is warming up, prepare a little space to work. Moisten a little sponge and place it in the base of your soldering iron stand or in a dish close by. Lay down a piece of cardboard in case you drip solder (you probably will) and make sure you have room to work comfortably. Step 3: Thoroughly Coat The Tip In Solder Thoroughly coat the soldering tip in solder. It is very important to cover the entire tip. You will use a considerable amount of solder during this process and it will drip, so be ready. If you leave any part of the tip uncovered it will tend to collect flux residue and will not conduct heat very well, so run the solder up and down the tip and completely around it to totally cover it in molten solder. Step 4: Clean The Soldering Tip After you are certain that the tip is totally coated in solder, wipe the tip off on the wet sponge to remove all the flux residue. Do this immediately so there is no time for the flux to dry out and solidify.

Married Life Both Before And After History Essay

Married Life Both Before And After History Essay Class certainly played a part in marriage in the 16th century, as romantic love was not seen as a good reason for marriage. The higher up the class scale a person was the more likely they were to have an arranged marriage. Marriage was considered rather important as it enhanced your standing in society, especially for the male as he would become a person of consequence and would gain the role of master of the house. Conscious of the responsibilities a husband assumed on marriage, parents of daughters favoured a man of means and maturity.  [1]   Arranged marriages were frowned upon by the church but nevertheless many arranged marriages took place with the newlyweds often being in their early teens and marrying through pressure with some women felt forced into marriage by their circumstances, unwilling to remain a burden on their family.  [2]   However the lower class tended to marry somebody they had spent a great deal of time with as they tended to socialise in groups, the lower class often married at an older age due to the need to save up and acquire some land to set up home. Marriage in 16th Century Britain was very different to the marriages of todays world, as Stone pointed out marriage among the property-owning classes in sixteenth-century England was a collective decision of family and kin, not an individual one.  [3]   This shows that class was an important part of marriage with rich families often arranging marriages for their children from a very young age as It was more common for the wealthier families to arrange marriages as it was a serious and complicated matter but, as Stephanie Coontz put it, If love could grow out of it, that was wonderful .  [4]   Poorer people could marry later and had more choice. Civil and ecclesiastical law enabled marriage at an early age 12 for a girl and 14 for a boy. Bottom of Form Top of Form The legal requirements for a marriage before the Marriage act of 1753 was a simple process of promising to do so in the presence of a witness furthered by the physical consummating of the relationship. Such informal marriages were not approved by the church who wanted all couples to marry in church before a minister, after the public announcement of the intention to marry had been carried out for three weeks, this is also known as the reading of the banns but resorting to irregular marriage was evident in the sixteenth century.  [5]   This form of engagement was much stricter than those of today as such a promise was seen, as equivalent to a marriage and it would not be a rare occurrence for the brides to be carrying child. Most 17th century marriages were arranged weddings with consent being an important issue as love was not seen as a strong platform for marriage but was viewed as a foundation as this would mean the couple were both compatible and comfortable with one another. The brides family would often pay a sum of money known as a dowry to the groom to pay for the maintenance of the women who in return was promised her dower which was a percentage of the brides estate that the wife would be entitled to on his death. However, love did begin to be used for marriage with the enlightenment train of thought and the belief that the pursuit of happiness was the meaning of life. Marriage through love was now beginning to be considered more important than material goods. The Industrial Revolution would further consolidate this view as the middle class increased tenfold and young bachelors could afford to pay for their own wedding, parental approval and arrangement for marriage were no longer as important or needed. The Marriage Act 1753 or An Act for the Better Preventing of Clandestine Marriage to give it its full title gained Royal Assent in 1754 and came into force on March 25th of that year. It was the first statutory legislation to require a ceremony of marriage in England and Wales and revolutionized the way marriages performed. Consent to marry for anybody under the age of 21 was made law but a limit on age was not introduced. The wedding would also have to take place and be celebrated in church with an entry, signed by all parties, being placed in the parish records. It can be argued that the law was a response to the upper classes agitation at manner in which young heir were trapped in an indissoluble marriage and would lose their money. Furthermore, the Act made it a legal requirement for the reading of the banns to be carried out for three successive weeks prior to the wedding taking place if the parties wishing to marry did not have a license to do so. Marriages by under 21s were acceptable on licence if they had gained the parental consent they needed. However, marriages done so by the reading of the banns were valid unless the parent of the youngest had forbidden the banns. The Act was highly successful in its stated aim of putting a stop to clandestine marriages By the 18th Century, couples were increasingly given the freedom to choose their own partner and many relationships began being based on personal preference and attraction rather than by the parents orders. Top of Form By the 19th Century British women carried the expectation o becoming pregnant, however due to life expectancy being greater for girls than that of the boys, coupled with the number of males serving in the armed force resulted in a shortage of suitable spouses. English law became based on the principle that the male would earn the money whilst the females stayed at home and kept the house. The few women that did work saw her wages passed directly to their husbands under the 1882 Married Property Act. Womens rights had not really been affected by the Marriage Act with females from upper class families being the only ones who had access to education, albeit in subjects viewed as necessary skills for women, such as embroidery This lack of education was seen as unbeneficial by women as it did not develop the women in any way other than menial tasks. In her book, A vindication of the rights of women, Mary Wollstonecraft, claimed that through education would come emancipation and that women had a right to be educated due to it being she who is primarily responsible for the education of the young. Furthermore, Mary Wollstonecraft stated that educating the women the same, as men would strengthen marriage, as the couple would have some topic to share and talk about and that a stable marriage is a partnership between a husband and a wife a marriage is a social contract between two individuals Wollstonecraft goes on to argue that educating women will strengthen the marriage relationship. Her concept of marriage underlies this argument. A woman thus needs to have equal knowledge and sense, to maintain the partnership. A stable marriage also provides for the proper education of children.  [6]   It was impossible for a woman to be granted a divorce even if the male had committed adultery, as the ideal was that upper and middle class women were dependant on a male figure, father, and husband. Men were given the right to divorce if their woman had been adulterous under the Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857, women, however could not divorce their husband if he committed adultery. If a divorce was granted the ownership of the children was passed to the father who had the power to banish the mother from the children if he so desired. Divorce became a less and less taboo subject due to the religious reformation and the way in which society began to question the validity of the church and God. Notwithstanding the ardour of religious reformers in Europe, the established church was brought into question during the reign of Henry VIII and in turn, Protestantism prevailed with the new church taking precedent. The role of the family became an important issue for theorists, none more so than Lawrence Stone, who, in 1977, put forward his theory the three stages of movement within the family. Stone claims that a power shift in the attitudes towards marriage could be seen through the early modern period, with affective individualism replacing the cold patriarchal traits. Stones three movements can be summarised as: The open lineage family 1450 1630. The attitude towards relatives would have been formal to a point of almost been cynical and callous. Upper class couples were distant to each other and as a result, their (often-arranged) marriage was akin to a business relationship. The immediate family were held in the same regard as the lineage members. Restricted patriarchal nuclear family 1550 1700. The importance of kinship was replaced with a growing importance been placed on the immediate relatives. This coincided with The Reformation criticising arranged marriages and the coldness within them, along with stressing the importance of a close nit family. Closed domesticated nuclear family 1640 1800. Love becomes priority with patriarchy in fast decline. Children were shown great affection and seen as a gift rather than a burden. Marriage for love became the norm and replaced the economic reasons to marry. The rise of the romantic novel allowed sex and passion to be legitimate in marriage and not just a tool for reproduction. Romantic love was the reason for marriage, not business. Stone did face criticism though, perhaps, none more so than at the hands of Alan Macfarlane who claimed that Stones thesis was flawed as it had overlapping periods, which gave no consideration to the fact it created conflicting evidence. Stone was also criticised for using evidence associated with the Roman Catholics and using them to strengthen his argument about the Reformation, for example claiming sex was a mere tool for procreation. Stones argument that people were discouraged from marriage and emotional attachment due to the high mortality rate is flawed, given that the mortality rates had sustained a high rate in the early eighteenth century, a time that Stone claims affection and love was growing and taking over as the main reason for marriage Finally, manuscripts and other medieval sources (Chaucer) did not back up, nor consolidate his argument that marriage was a loveless union with a lack of affection for the spouses. With romantic novels booming it was clear that people had an understanding and appreciation of love.